Reprint
A Brief Assessment of the Potential Impact of Proposed Regulatory Changes for the Andaman and Nicobar Islands
by Stephanie Fried and Rick Anex
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Table of Contents
2. Background 3. The Science of Coral Reef and Remote Island Ecosystem Protection 4. Impacts of Tourism on Reef Ecosystems 5. Case Study: Rapid Appraisal of Environmental and Social Threats to Havelock Island Appendix A: Phuket Appendix B: Issues relating to invasives in the Andaman Islands (excerpts) |
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The paper was written for the IUAES Inter-Congress, University of Calcutta, 2004 Stephanie Fried, PhD: Senior Scientist, Environmental Defense, P.O. Box 520, Waimanalo, Hawai'i, 96734; stephf@environmentaldefense.org Rick Anex: Point Zero, Noumea, New Caledonia; dakuwaqa@lagoon.nc Copyright ©2004 Stephanie Fried and Rick Anex |
1. Proposed Regulatory Changes
The Department of Tourism, Andaman and Nicobar Administration is currently proposing changes to the existing regulations for the islands, focusing on the significant expansion of tourism operations, including the "opening up" of ten islands in the first phase of tourism development(3) and the establishment of an "empowered, high-powered body", under Department of Tourism auspices, located in Port Blair, and designed to ensure "single window clearance" and a "resort approval regime which is quick and flexible" for "eco-friendly" tourism infrastructure development &endash; including the approvals &endash; within a year -- for the construction of 10 resorts in the islands, the "creation of golf courses wherever land is available in different parts of the islands with early environmental clearance, and the promotion of the islands as an "international cruise destination"(4). The proposal opens with mention of the "fragile ecology and limited carrying capacity" of the A&N islands and then proposes the extension of the airport runway from 6,000 feet to 11,000 feet to "facilitate the landing of wide-bodied long haul aircraft", the designation of Port Blair as an International Airport, the declaration of the A&N islands as a "Special Tourism Zone," and the leasing of "entire uninhabited islands". No analysis is provided of the manner by which the existing carrying capacity of the islands is sufficient for the existing population -- for example, there is no analysis of the extent of fresh water availability to support existing needs, in addition to proposed additional tourism and golf infrastructure(5).
Aiming at the development of a "brand identity" for the A&N Islands and noting that "problems in obtaining environmental and forest clearances" deter foreign and Indian entrepreneurs from investments in island tourism infrastructure, water sports, and high speed vessels and that "as far as foreign entrepreneurs are concerned, environmental issues and clearances often make them drop their investment ideas"(6), the "high powered Body" proposed by the Department of Tourism is designed to ensure that "no case-by-case referral to the Ministry of Environment and Forests" will be required for tourism infrastructure development(7). The Department of Tourism encourages the Ministry of Environment and Forests to "take a more pragmatic approach," perhaps evidenced by the July 24, 2003 Notification S.O. 838 (E) which drastically reduces the "No Construction Zone" from 200 mts "to a minimum of 50 mts in the identified stretches of the Islands in the Union Teritory of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands selected and declared by the Central Government for promotion of tourism"(8). In addition, the proposal indicates that "present laws do not permit small pleasure crafts/boats to take scuba divers into open sea," and recommends the declaration of island ports as "inland waters" allowing vessels already registered under the Inland Vessels Act to be operated there with impunity.
This marks a tremendous a shift away from the from the principle of protecting national security, environmental security, and remote indigenous communities by declaring &endash; in accordance with the present policy of the Ministry of Home Affairs -- that all islands are closed to tourism without special permission to the inverse paradigm of declaring all islands open for tourism, unless closed for specific national security reasons. It appears to be in direct conflict with the recent Supreme Court decision designed to protect indigenous communities and the island ecosystem. The proposal calls for the "relaxation of Coastal Regulation Zone requirements" and calls for "special dispensation" to allow the construction of resorts in the most fragile CRA1 areas(9).
The isolation of remote and largely uninhabited archipelagos often makes monitoring and enforcement difficult. In the United States, remote island ecosystems with their oceanographically and ecologically insular biological communities are subject to special protection measures. It is well established scientifically, and is an axiom of the field of island biogeography that species and biological assemblages that exist under such circumstances are inherently more vulnerable to human disturbance than are assemblages of similar species on a continental shelf(10). For example, the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in the remote and uninhabited Northwestern Hawaiian Islands operates under the principle that all activities are prohibited unless specifically allowed by individual permit. For the fragile and remote island ecosystems of the Hawaiian Islands Refuge, the permitting process is especially rigorous and no development of tourism infrastructure is allowed. (Midway Island, the site of the Midway National Wildlife Refuge was a former military base where -- for a five year period -- very simple tourist facilities were operated, (renovated military barracks, one restaurant, strict prohibition of endangered species interactions) and was limited to approximately 100 people at a time. This was the only island in the 1200 nautical mile long chain to have any sort of tourist infrastructure and access.) In order to ensure ecosystem protection, all other access to the Hawaiian Islands Refuges in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands is extremely limited -- despite tourism potential and despite the dependence on tourism of the neighboring Main Hawaiian Islands. Permits are only granted to a handful of researchers and resource managers who must observe strict alien species protocols (decontamination of clothing, vessels, gear, etc.) in order to set foot on the islands.
As currently proposed, Phase Two of A & N tourism development is slated to open up all of the Andaman and Nicobar islands (except for a few that may be considered constrained by specific national security requirements) for tourism, SCUBA diving, and hiking &endash; despite the existence of isolated indigenous communities protected under Supreme Court order(11). The Tourism Department provides no analysis of nor mention of the impact of the planned development on isolated indigenous communities, an issue of national and international concern, and one specifically addressed by the recent Supreme Court decision(12). In addition, the Department proposes that the "beach areas of islands declared as National Parks and Sanctuaries should also be used for resorts" and claims that the opening of more islands to tourism and the removal of permits for foreign tourists will "help in checking poaching activities in far-flung /remote islands"(13). Eventually 20% of the Andaman and Nicobar islands may be consecrated to tourist infrastructure. Highly-destructive installations as golf courses are to be created on "all available, suitable lands."
The proposed abolition of the system of mandatory Restricted Area Permits for foreign tourists, and the removal of the 30 day limit for foreign tourist visits to the islands represents a significant threat, including a threat to national security. Current closed zones allow for potentially easier monitoring of illegal activities -- including potential arms and drug smuggling and entry by foreign nationals seeking land for agriculture and forestry -- than the proposed open-access system. These proposals are linked to future plans to promote the initiation of significant new infrastructure associated with the tourism industry, including the potential introduction of sea-planes to ferry tourists to remote and currently inaccessible locations.
These proposed changes are likely to be associated with the irreversible degradation of the archipelago's fragile marine and terrestrial ecosystems. In addition, the expansion of tourism activities &endash; including a plan to establish direct flights from Bangkok to Port Blair and establish a "sister city" relationship between the A&N Islands and Phuket(14) -- may well introduce significant threats to the survival of the indigenous peoples of the islands, as the demand for "new experiences" by increasing numbers of tourists potentially leads to increased likelihood of interactions with isolated indigenous communities, as well as the potential for the introduction of infection diseases, including HIV/AIDS, SARS, avian influenza, etc.
The remote Andaman and Nicobar Islands -- one of the last tropical archipelagos remaining on earth with significant endemic forest cover and relatively unimpacted reef ecosystems -- are at a crossroads. With careful oversight, with the premise that environmental security is equated with national security, and the principal purpose of dedication to the long term conservation and protection of the marine and terrestrial ecosystems of the A&N islands in their natural character, these islands have the potential to serve as an outstanding model of global importance for environmental stewardship.
Given the context of an internationally recognized and historic Supreme Court decision in favor of strong ecosystem protection and indigenous rights protection measures, as well as support for ecosystem conservation and the protection of biodiversity from various governmental agencies and non-government organizations, plans for the protection of the Andaman and Nicobar terrestrial and marine ecosystems, including the implementation of the Supreme Court mandate may -- if carried out in accordance with existing law -- lead to a new model for ecosystem protection and protection of indigenous rights.
A key component of the management of such fragile and diverse ecosystems is management based on the best available science and the utilization of the precautionary principle, where resource protection is favored when there is a lack of information regarding any given activity.
On the other hand, if the lessons provided by current tourism efforts here (cf. Jolly Buoy Island, Red Skin Island, Havelock) and around the world are ignored, the fragile ecosystems and isolated indigenous communities of the A&N are likely to face severe and irreversible impacts from the proposed expansion of tourist sites and the relaxation of permitting and length-of-stay restrictions for foreign tourists.
The Jolly Buoy and Red Skin reef sites provide an instructive example of the fragility of local ecosystems, the lack of enforcement and monitoring capacity, and point to the devastating impact of tourism in an area where it could, in theory, be easily controlled and monitored, compared to more remote areas(15). Jolly Buoy and Red Skin are located near Port Blair, the site of the greatest number of resource managers, scientists, and enforcement officials. These officials are equipped to a far greater extent (staff, communications, transport, etc.) than their counterparts on more remote islands of the archipelago. Despite the relative ease of monitoring and enforcement, the corals in these two sites have been devastated by the presence of tourists (primarily local Indian tourists) numbering approximately 250 people/day &endash; tens of thousands per year. Scientists have observed tourists and inexperienced snorkellers standing on corals and inadvertently breaking coral reef structures. Physical damage to the corals is the leading cause of destruction at these sites, followed by damage from smothering by sediment. A continual decline in coral health has been recorded over the past 5 years, despite the fact that the environment provides ideal conditions for coral growth(16). On February 1, 2004, these islands and their devastated reefs were officially closed to the public.
In the past, portions of these island ecosystems have been relatively protected by their isolation and by governmental efforts &endash; including a relatively restrictive system of permits for foreign tourists -- to sharply limit entry and tourism out of concern for biodiversity, as well as for additional national security reasons (including potential arms and drug traffic) (17). Given the failure to protect coral ecosystems from tourism impacts under the most favorable conditions, it is difficult to imagine greater successes in more remote and under-monitored areas with under-staffed enforcement personnel. Nor does there appear to be a specific and comprehensive methodology aimed at the prevention of the introduction (accidental/purposeful) of alien species to marine and terrestrial ecosystems.
Current marine and terrestrial ecosystem protection measures elsewhere &endash; for example, in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands Coral Reef Ecosystem Reserve and Hawaiian Islands Fish and Wildlife Refuges aim to "bring the place to the people, not the people to the place" and to encourage support from "protection from afar" &endash; i.e. where visits to fragile ecosystems are not encouraged in person, but rather through the viewing of films, the distribution of books, and the setting up of remote sensing/viewing operations.
If, indeed, the GOI is committed to the protection of these island ecosystems and has identified the protection of biodiversity as a priority, it is important to recognize that even the relatively small tourism industry has already generated significant, and potentially irreversible impacts on the marine ecosystems in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Lieutenant Governor of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Professor Ram Kapse has recently called for "plastic-free islands," stressing that "plastic/polythene/synthetic materials, which are not recyclable, should not be brought to these islands in the interest of the conservation of our ecology" (18). The proposed opening up of ten new sites for tourism and the relaxation of the permit system for foreign tourists is likely to have substantial and irreversible impacts on the ecosystem.
The isolation of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and their coral reefs, mangroves, sea grass beds, marine lakes, and deep sea valleys has made them some of the most biologically diverse and vulnerable ecosystems in the region. They contain India's most extensive and diverse coral reef resources and the largest area of coral cover in South Asia, featuring over 200 coral species &endash; in relatively intact conditions -- and at least 400 species of fish. The region serves as an important nesting site for threatened and endangered sea turtles, including the critically endangered leatherback, the hawksbill, olive ridley and green sea turtles. The endangered dugong is also found here. Approximately 40% of the 244 species and subspecies of birds are endemic as are 60% of the 58 species of mammals(19). Nine endemic amphibians and 31 reptiles have been identified. Fourteen percent of the islands' 700 genera (belonging to 140 families) of angiosperm species are endemic. Over 50% of the archiplago's butterflies have been reported as endemic(20).
The A&N Islands have been identified as one of only four places on earth where more than 1,000 critically endangered leatherback turtles gather to nest. However, observations during the 2000-2001 breeding season found that a staggering 40% of nesting leatherbacks had boat propeller cuts on their flippers, necks, and carapaces. In addition, it was discovered that sand mining had destroyed at least 21 beaches regularly used by different species of turtles(21). It is estimated that feral dogs predate nearly 70% of the eggs and hatchlings of the sea turtles of the islands(22).
World-wide assessments of the health of coral reefs made in late 2000 show that 27% of the world's reefs have been effectively lost, with the largest single cause being the massive climate-related coral bleaching event of 1998. This destroyed about 16% of the coral reefs of the world in 9 months during the largest El Niño and La Niña climate events ever recorded(23). The A&N reefs have remained remarkably unaffected by these events, adding to their uniqueness and conservation value on a global scale.
In April 2001, an international team of scientists conducted a ten-day rapid survey of the coral reefs of the Andaman Islands(24). The rapid survey of a mere 13 sites identified 197 species of coral, of which 111 had not been previously found in the Andaman and Nicobar ecosystem, highlighting (a) the globally significant level of biodiversity of the region (b) the fact that the reefs were less impacted than feared &endash; hardly affected by the devastating coral bleaching events which had impacted coral reef ecosystems worldwide in 1998 and not subject to damaging infestations of the crown-of-thorns starfish and (c) underscoring the paucity of scientific knowledge of this remote and complex archipelago(25).
In March 2002, 62 marine ecosystem experts met in Hanoi under UNESCO auspices to identify "biodiversity hotspots" of outstanding universal value. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands were among the sites identified by scientists as important biodiversity "hotspots" and potential candidates for designation as a World Heritage Site.
3. The Science of Coral Reef and Remote Island Ecosystem Protection
In May 2003, over one hundred scientists, primarily coral reef,
fishery, and endangered terrestrial and marine species experts,
gathered in Honolulu, Hawai'i at the invitation of the U.S.
Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration (NOAA) to discuss the protection and preservation of
coral reefs of the remote Northwestern Hawaiian Islands archipelago.
The scientists met over a two-day period and identified threats to
these remote and relatively pristine ecosystems and suggestions for
sound management. Their suggestions and findings reflect the best
available coral reef ecosystem science and are of direct relevance to
efforts to protect the marine and terrestrial ecosystems of the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Key threats to island and marine
ecosystems identified by the scientists are outlined below:
Threats to coral reef and adjacent terrestrial ecosystems
Scientists identified human activities and vessel traffic as some of the most significant threats to island and atoll ecosystems, including:
Acute and chronic anthropogenic effects on marine and terrestrial ecosystems potentially leading to irreversible "phase shifts" in ecosystem composition, changes in species diversity, spatial distribution and age/size structure of populations, and changes in genetic structure over time directly associated with commercial extraction (fisheries), tourism (including ecotourism), interaction with endangered and threatened species via tourism, educational activities, research, vessel transit (including cruise ship passage), fishing (commercial extraction, including for the aquarium fish trade, recreational fishing &endash; both legal and illegal), passage of other commercial vessels (cargo, etc.), monitoring activities, reserve management (i.e. removal of marine debris from corals), military exercises/amphibious landings.
- Baseline information on marine ecosystems: tides, currents, natural ecosystem characteristics, habitat diversity required by different life stages and species; key ecological requirements of species and their associated habitats;
- Information on trophic structure/community structure/predator-prey relations
- Identification of vulnerable species &endash; endemic, rare, listed (endangered, threatened, migratory), apex predators (fish, cetaceans, birds, etc.), sensitive species ( range limited due to temperature, salinity, light, contaminants, or life history characteristics);
- Biogeography, including connectivity between islands (for exploited species, endemics, etc.), habitat relationships
- Natural stressors
- Lack of understanding of causes of mortality in wildlife populations and of habitat requirements that may limit recovery of endangered/threatened species
- Identification of ecologically sensitive habitats.
- Information on loss of terrestrial habitat used by protected species for reproduction and impact of this loss on marine ecosystems (i.e. predation on turtle hatchlings, loss of ground cover on reef ecosystems, etc.)
- Lack of information on/ability to detect physical changes in the environment/habitat.
4. Impacts of Tourism on Reef Ecosystems (based on UNEP Data(27) )
Tourism has both direct and indirect impacts on coral reefs. Snorkeling, diving and boating can cause direct physical damage to reefs, and fishing and collecting can contribute to over-exploitation of reef species and threaten local survival of endangered species. Indirect impacts relate to the development, land-clearing (and related erosion/run-off problems), the clearing of mangrove ecosystems (which provide shoreline protection, fish and crustacean nurseries, etc.), the construction and operation of tourism infrastructure as a whole (resorts, marinas, ports, airports etc. &endash; including the utilization and discharge of industrial and household chemicals and wastes, chemical insect control, construction of sea walls leading to accelerated beach erosion, etc.), increased pressure on available land via increasing food demands and the creation of new communities developed to serve tourist complexes with an unstable client base (i.e. subject to global economic and political shifts.)
Direct physical damage from snorkeling and diving has been the subject of extensive study and is well documented. The damage inflicted by divers and snorkelers consists mostly of breaking fragile, branched corals or causing lesions to massive corals. Research indicates that reef degradation and change of reef community structure occurs once a certain level of use by divers and snorkelers is exceeded. Note the case of Jolly Buoy and Red Skin Islands (above).
Physical damage from anchors and especially boat groundings can be severe. Anchor damage is proportional to the size of the boat (i.e. weight of the anchor and length of anchor chain) and is further dependent on the type of coral community. Recovery of coral damage from boat groundings is slow. It is thought that coral diseases can be provoked by anchor-related damage.
Tourism increases the demand for seafood and has an impact of on reef fish resources. Tourism increases the collecting of marine souvenirs and is likely to stimulate a market for marine curiousities.
Tourism-related sources of sewage pollution include resorts and, to a lesser extent, recreational vessels. There is evidence that a very large percentage of the sewage generated by hotels is discharged in coastal waters without adequate treatment. The main impact of sewage pollution is nutrient enrichment, which favours certain species (algae in particular) at the expense of corals. The impacts of nutrient enrichment from sewage pollution on corals in general have been well studied, but those specifically from sewage pollution from hotels and recreational vessels have not been quantified.
Coastal development and the construction and operation of related tourism infrastructure cause increased runoff and sedimentation. Sedimentation is one of the main reasons for reef degradation. Increased sediment loading of coastal waters increases turbidity, reduces light levels and leads to stress on corals, often expressed by "bleaching" of corals. Heavy sediment loading may also cause corals to suffocate and die. Other documented impacts of sedimentation on corals include lower growth rates, reduced productivity and reduced recruitment.
Golf courses can have a particularly devastating effect on coasts, through fertilizer and pesticide run-off, the stripping of littoral vegetation, and the tremendous demand for fresh water irrigation linked to high evaporative losses.
Tourism is obviously a source of large amounts of solid waste, the impacts of which depend very much on the method of disposal. If disposed of inappropriately, leaching of toxic substances may harm corals. Of particular concern is the "accidental" waste - plastics in particular - that is blown into the ocean from beaches or vessels and has a detrimental effect on corals and other marine life.
Tourism-related impacts on coral reefs are significant, but they are also compounded by other impacts that are not easily distinguished from those of tourism. This does not mean that we must disregard the impacts of tourism activities. On the contrary, the tourism sector and government agencies involved in tourism development must try to eliminate or reduce those impacts that can be controlled, even if there is no 100% proof that a certain impact is directly related to a tourist activity. An increase in human presence in many areas, irrespective of the nature of the activities, can initiate a process of irreversible degradation, especially in the absence of appropriate ecosystem monitoring when the telltale signs of ecosystem collapse are not recognized until an irreversible phase shift has occurred.
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Activities with direct impact |
Actual and/or potential impact |
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Snorkeling SCUBA diving Motor boating and yachting Fishing, including recreational and game fishing Collecting (shells, lobsters, conch, coral) |
Physical damage (breakage, lesions); Physical damage (breakage, lesions, stress on territorial species) Physical damage from anchoring; Contribute to over-exploitation of reef fish stocks; Threatening local survival of rare species; |
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Resort operations: - Sewage disposal, fertilizer runoff , irrigation - Solid waste disposal Seafood consumption |
Increased sedimentation - Nutrient enrichment Leaching of toxic substances from inappropriate waste disposal; chlorine bleach effluent from laundry services; litter (especially plastics) Over-exploitation of high-priced resource species (snapper, grouper, spiny lobster, conch) |
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Demand for marine curiosities |
Exploitation of rare/ endangered/ vulnerable species such as shells, black coral, turtles |
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Construction of artificial beaches and beach replenishment |
Increased sedimentation (from sand removal or from beach instability) |
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Airport construction or extension |
Increased sedimentation from dredging and infilling |
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Marina construction |
Increased sedimentation from dredging |
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Motor boating and yachting |
Nutrient enrichment from sewage disposal |
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Cruise ships |
Nutrient enrichment from illegal sewage disposal |
5. Case Study: Rapid Appraisal of Environmental and Social Threats to Havelock Island
Havelock Island is a good example of minimal tourism development and agricultural production which, nonetheless, appear likely to have a significant impact on marine and terrestrial ecosystems. These types of impacts are likely to be vastly multiplied as tourism pressure increases and as permit controls are loosened. Informal observation of environmental and social impacts of tourism and other human activities on Havelock Island identified the following categories of impact (see also enclosed photographs):
1. Removal/destruction of coastal mangrove groves, resulting in severe beach erosion, destruction of shallow water fish nurseries, linked to establishment of tourist facilities (i.e. government-sponsored Dolphin Beach Resort).
2. Construction of sea walls &endash; i.e. Dolphin Beach Resort &endash; leading to severe erosion at site of wall and at neighboring sites surrounding the wall(28).
3. Sand mining &endash; for construction/cement and for road construction. The Supreme Court mandated a phase-out of 20% per year to bring the rate down to 33% of the 2002 levels within five years(29). It remains unclear the extent to which this has been accomplished.
4. Lack of a coherent waste management plan for the island.
5. Proliferation of plastic wastes &endash; (a) pelagic plastics (b) local tourism-related plastics (water bottles, etc.) (c) reports of a proposed new plastic production facility planned for Port Blair
6. Water pollution (including run-off) and air pollution
a. Unsustainable farming practices featuring inorganic fertilizers (nitrogen, etc.), pesticide use including apparent use of DDT, and substantial monoculture tree crop plantations.b. Burning of plastics -- air pollution & potential contamination of rain water/catchment water/ ocean)
c. Contamination by human wastes &endash; lack of sanitation, potential problems with septic systems close to shore (?)
d. Inappropriate utilization of pesticides, including DDT, reported in shoreline tourist facilities &endash; i.e. reported spraying of backpacker huts, etc.
7. Encroachment via the expansion of farms outside of allocated areas, to steep hillsides and forested lands &endash; leading to destruction of forest and reef ecosystems (run-off, siltation); reported poaching of timber and wildlife.
8. Impact on fish populations
a. Increase in pressure on local reef fish resources for tourism consumptionb. Change in target species to meet tourism demands for high-value species (lobster, bottomfish, etc.)
c. Substantial pressure on fish stocks from local communities
d. Shark finning &endash; presence of shark nets, reports of shark finning
9. Diving impacts
a. Anchoring on coralsb. Breakage of corals due to inexperience/beginning divers/lack of education
10. Inappropriate management of shoreline forest understory in/around tourist sites &endash; i.e. "sweeping clean" of leaves/humus from forest understory, preventing regeneration, exposing root systems, potentially allowing increase in soil temperature around exposed roots root systems
11. Inadequate financial and infrastructure support for terrestrial and marine surveillance and enforcement measures (timber & marine poaching, including monitoring of fish quota sent to mainland) &endash; lack of enforcement/surveillance vehicles (boats, motorcycles, etc.), appropriate radio communications equipment, staff (including staff with specific resource protection/ecosystem training).
12. Cultural impacts &endash; children beginning to beg tourists for money.
Phuket Gazette
Monday, February 2, 2004
Tourism booms as passengers top 500,000
PHUKET TOWN: The latest figures on air passenger arrivals and departures show that Phuket is in the middle of a tourism boom with a record 509,841 visitors coming and going in January.
This is the first time the half-million figure has been exceeded in a single calendar month. The number represents a whopping 23% increase on the figure of 390,109 recorded in January last year.
The number of flights was also up, from 2,609 flights in January 2003 to 2,936 flights this year. Of these, 636 were charter flights &endash; up from 542 in January 2003.
There were 1,225 domestic flights carrying 268,079 passengers and 1,711 international flights with 241,762 passengers.
"Most charter flights are coming from Asia, especially Japan, Korea and China, and also from Norway and Sweden," said Lt Cdr Boonchart Prompoon, Director of the Airports Authority of Thailand, Phuket. "Tourism is booming now, with good support from the government."
No figures were available for the average waiting time for tourists in the queues for Immigration counters.
huket Gazette
by Kritchaya Kiattiwut
Island sees rising tide of child sex
PHUKET: Porn was born in Phang Nga 18 years ago. A typical Thai girl, she has a small frame, straight dark hair, smooth skin, and a pretty face. When she's not wearing makeup you'd think she is a university or college student.
"Of course I want to study and have a better life. But I've come this far and nobody cares. My mom was mad at me and refused to see me again after the school told her that they had asked me to leave because of the extra job I had while studying," she says.
Porn is a singer and call girl at a well-known nightclub in Phuket Town. She works for the same man who was her "agent" five years ago, who would find wealthy men who wanted sex with young girls.
Porn recalls when she was 13, and her roommate introduced her to the concept of commercial sex. She remembers being excited about the big money she could make.
"At the beginning, I didn't really enjoy the job, but I was getting far more money than my parents could ever give me, and living a lifestyle that I could never have dreamed of in the rubber plantations where I grew up.
"I didn't like school either. I hated how other girls looked down on me, as if I was some kind of dirty rat in a classroom."
If Porn had the chance, would she change to a different career? She laughs out loud. "Are you talking about a dream? No one in this world is going to employ me and pay me the money I earn now, not unless it involves sex."
Porn's story is typical of many of the child prostitutes that are growing in number in Phuket, despite that fact that having sex with children carries heavy penalties under Thai law.
The penalty for statutory rape or sexual abuse of children under the age of 15 ranges from four to 20 years in jail. If the child is under the age of 13, the sentence can be life in jail.
Yet the child sex trade on the island seems to be booming, with child sex tours now promoted on the Internet.
As demand increases, so does supply. Porn earned 1,000 baht per customer, and had no idea how much her pimp made. Nowadays, she says, "there are more high school and college kids in Phuket doing the same thing, and they make a lot more than I did [as a child prostitute]."
Few of those schoolchildren are forced to be prostitutes. Most do it willingly &endash; after all, the demand is there, and the money is very good.
The clients come from all walks of life and all nationalities, from the stereotypical sex tourist &endash; middle-aged, overweight, balding &endash; to young, good looking, well-educated professionals to government civil servants.
"When I was between 13 and 16, I came across many well-heeled Thai officials, as well as rich Asian executives, and even richer Arabs," Porn told the Gazette.
Ajarn Thip-apa Suchantabutr, deputy director of Satree Phuket School, the island's top government school for girls, agrees that the numbers of children involved in prostitution is increasing.
She denies the school expels such students. "We counsel the kids, and try to find out what makes them do this. Then we contact the parents if we can find them, and the Provincial Social Welfare Office.
"Most of the girls who do this are of mixed parentage and live in Patong. They grow up thinking that prostitution is normal behavior &endash; that it's just another profession."
Part of the demand for sex with children, especially in Asia, is driven by two myths: that children are less likely to be infected with HIV, and that sex with a child can revive a flagging libido. Both are just that &endash; myths.
Indeed, what is particularly sad is that children, more naïve and less assertive, are less likely to insist on the use of condoms and are thus more likely to get infected with HIV than adults are.
But on the supply side there is nothing mythical about the benefits. Young prostitutes can earn a great deal of money in a very short time.
One government officer who spoke with the Gazette on condition of anonymity, tells the tale of a superior who came down from Bangkok for a tour of inspection.
"He wanted a young girl, so one of my colleagues managed to find a 15-year-old who was selling sex while attending her last year in high school.
"She went to his hotel room and a few hours later I was asked to drive her back home. In the car I asked how much she made because I knew that my boss had paid the pimp 5,000 baht.
"She said 'It's 3,000.' I asked her how she had become involved in the business. 'Don't you have parents?' I asked. She replied, 'Yes, but they don't know. Even if they did know, they wouldn't care anyway.'"
"I was surprised by how much she made but what really shocked me was when she said that my boss was her sixth customers of the day. She said that on a good day she might have 10 customers. She made 20,000 to 30,000 baht every weekend."
Naturally, there are also Thai officials working on the side of the angels, as was made plain recently when the Crime Suppression Division and Tourist Police in Bangkok raided a brothel run by a 53-year-old European.
On the outside the brothel, in a prime area of Bangkok, looked like a rich man's home. Inside, it was divided into small rooms for sex. Police arrested more than 20 foreigners aged 45 and above, along with the owner and a variety of boys ranging in age from 10 to 25.
This club had its own website with photographs of the boys on offer on any particular night. Customers could sit by the pool as the boys paraded past them naked to allow them to choose a "companion".
This trade is by no means limited to Bangkok. The country manager of a major tour operator in Patong, which brings around 1,000 tourists to Phuket every week during the high season, tells of a commercial proposition he recently had:
"They &endash; three farang and two tough-looking Thais &endash; came to the office at the end of last high season, sometime in May. They showed me a folder &endash; they called it 'a catalog' with pornographic photos of children, both boys and girls.
"I felt really bad for Thailand. I told them that I didn't think my clients, who have been attracted to Thailand by photos of temples, Thai culture, and beaches would want to buy such a service.
"They offered us a great deal of commission, but I refused.
"But I can't tell you whether other tour guides or agencies also refused," said the manager.
Dr Supaluck Methakul, chairperson of Child Watch Phuket, which rescues children from physical and sexual abuse, was shocked when told about the catalog.
"I'd never heard about this before. What a danger to children, and it's even worse to learn that the business is operated by foreigners. It's an infringement of the children's rights, and it's very bad for both the children and for society.
"[Such abuse] makes it very hard for children to lead better lives when they grow up. I worry that, if this could happen in Patong, then it won't stop there. The trade could spread throughout the whole island. Everyone should work together to eliminate this."
Anyone wishing to report cases of child sexual abuse or prostitution is urged to call Fight Against Child Exploitation (FACE) at 02-5095782 or 01-3072111 or the Crime Suppression Division on 02-5120606.
Appendix B: Issues relating to invasives in the Andaman Islands (excerpts)
by Rauf Ali
E-mail for correspondence: rauf@feralindia.org
15 October 2003
Invasive introduced species rank only second to habitat destruction as threat factors to endangered species in the US. They are an important factor in the reasons why 49% of the species on the United States endangered species list are endangered (Simberloff, 2000). Simberloff states that introduced species in the United States are a greater threat to native biodiversity than pollution, harvest and disease combined.
The damage due to introduced species was assessed as US$137 billion in the US annually.
On land, humans can either introduce invasives deliberately or accidentally. Domestic livestock and pet animals are deliberate introductions. Crop seeds may be contaminated, or livestock may carry unwanted pests and pathogens. By sea, ships often take on water in special tanks to increase their weight, and this ballast water is released into another area, usually a port, when cargo is to be loaded. Ship ballast alone can transport up to 7000 species every day, ranging from cholera bacteria to fish (UCS, 2001); other estimates state that over 10,000 species may be transported daily by this method (Pauchard, in prep.). Debris created by human activity, which is discarded in the sea, has also been identified recently as a cause of transport of invasives from one part of the worlds to another (Barnes, 2002).
Pauchard (in prep.) hypothesises that transport links and other man-mediated mechanisms are crucial to enabling global movement of invasives as a first step to their introduction. Continental rainforest fragments resist invasion by exotic plants, whereas oceanic islands tend to have a higher invasibility (Teo et al, 2003).
Plants
Parkinson (1923) recorded a hundred species of introduced plants from the Andaman Islands. These can be categorized roughly into the following broad categories: 24 are non-ornamental trees, 30 are ornamental trees, shrubs and creepers, 40 are fruit or vegetable herbs, shrubs and trees. Six have been found growing wild. These are Urena lobata, Acacia farnesiana, Calotropis gigantea, and 3 species of Solanum. Since 1923 there have been many more introduced species seen in the wild, since the scale of settlement has gone up by over an order of magnitude. The species observed growing wild nowadays include Eicchornia crassipes, or water hyacinth, and this has been observed choking up freshwater bodies.
The majority of weeds seen growing on wasteland appear to be exotic. Eupatorium and Parthenium are observed in abundance everywhere in the Andamans.
Prevention in the islands
Controlling the influx of new species into the islands is obviously critical, since preventing potential invasives from establishing themselves is more cost effective than control. One of the most important steps to be taken is the sterilisation of ballast water (UCS, 2001). Whereas regulations exist in some places that ballast water is to be exchanged at mid-sea before entry into a port, this is either not done properly, or is observed in the breach. No regulations exist for Indian ports. While the presence of aquatic invasives has not been studied or documented in these islands, it would be surprising if the problem did not exist. It would largely caused due to transport in ballast water.
Wood that is being transported often carries pest species that become invasives at the destination point of the wood.
(1) Author:Stephanie Fried, Senior Scientist, Environmental Defense, P.O. Box 520, Waimanalo, Hawai'i, 96734; stephf@environmentaldefense.org
(2) Co-author: Rick Anex, Point Zero, Noumea, New Caledonia; dakuwaqa@lagoon.nc
(3) "Strategy for the Development of Tourism and Tourism Infrastructure in the Andaman Islands," Department of Tourism, A&N Administration, January 2004, p. 9 . "Since the average time required to set up a resort is about 2 years, it would not be desirable to proceed to merely one or two resorts at a time."
(4) "Strategy for the Development of Tourism and Tourism Infrastructure in the Andaman Islands," Department of Tourism, A&N Administration, January 2004. p. 6 . Also, the GOI should "immediately allow and encourage cruise vessels to exclusively use Andaman waters and to base them here," requiring and "upgrade of port facilities." p. 10
(5) The capital city of Port Blair has substantial water shortage problems and, at times, relies on the import of water from remote islands. Golf courses utilize extraordinarily high amounts of water, and require the constant application of large amounts of nitrogen fertilizers and pesticides, likely to run off onto nearby reef ecosystems and into the local water table.
(6) "Strategy for the Development of Tourism and Tourism Infrastructure in the Andaman Islands," Department of Tourism, A&N Administration, January 2004. p. 3
(8) Ministry of Environment and Forests, July 24, 2003 Notification S.O. 838, page 2.
(9) "Strategy for the Development of Tourism and Tourism Infrastructure in the Andaman Islands," Department of Tourism, A&N Administration, January 2004. p. 4
(10) Bruce Wilcox, "Preliminary Results of Fishing Alternative Development Process for the proposed Northwestern Hawaiian Islands National Marine Sanctuary,"presented January 9, 2004, NOS, Honolulu, Hawai'i.
(11) "Strategy for the Development of Tourism and Tourism Infrastructure in the Andaman Islands," Department of Tourism, A&N Administration, January 2004.
(12) Cf. testimony presented to the Supreme Court: Dr. Mark Levene, University of Warwick, U.K. regarding the genocide of tribal peoples: "Historic precedents involving the relocation and sedentarisation of tribal peoples (particularly in island cultures) have often led to their complete destruction."; Dr. Marcus Colchester of the Oxford-based Forest Peopleís Programme regarding relocation of the Jarawas which could be termed illegal under the International Labour Organisationís Convention 107 and Articles 7 and 10 of the UN Draft Declaration on the rights of Indigenous peoples prohibiting "any form of population transfer which may violate or undermine the rightsî of indigenous peoples." (in Sekhsaria, p. 23).
(13) "Strategy for the Development of Tourism and Tourism Infrastructure in the Andaman Islands," Department of Tourism, A&N Administration, January 2004. p. 6 The report cites the U.S. National Park Service which "allows entry into National Parks and Sanctuaries". The Park Service is under the Department of Interior; National Marine Sanctuaries are under the Department of Commerce. A more fitting parallel would be the regulations of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service regulations (under the U.S. Department of Interior) for the remote island and atoll National Wildlife Refuges of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands - a remote and biodiversity-rich terrestrial and marine ecosystem much more similar to the A&N Islands than the terrestrial parks on the U.S. mainland.
(14) See enclosed Phuket Gazette article, "Island sees rising tide of child sex" (see Appendix A above) which documents the boom in the child sex trade in Phuket, linked to promotion via internet and via tour companies, linked also to HIV infections.
(15) Sarang Kulkarni, ìSpatio-temporal Changes in Coral Community Structure in M.G. Marine National Park, Andaman Islands: Its Conservatoin Implications,î University of Pune, Department of Environmental Sciences, 2003.
(17) It should be noted, however, that the existing permit system does not mandate inspection of foreign tourist luggage for shells, coral products, timber products, etc.
(18) The Daily Telegrams, "LG Calls for Plastic Free Island," Jan 28, 2004. Port Blair.
(19) Pankaj Sekhsaria, "Troubled Islands: Writings on the indigenous Peoples and environment of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands", Kalpavriksh, LEAD India, 2003, p. 57.
(26) In remote ecosystems it is often necessary to take strong steps to avoid accidental introduction of alien invasive species. For example in the Hawaiian Islands National Wildlife Refuge, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Department has very strict permitting requirements. Landing on islands is restricted only to researchers and managers approved by the F&W Service; all planning on landing must either freeze their clothes and footgear prior to disembarking (to kill any possible life forms, seeds, etc.) or wear newly-purchased clothes to avoid accidental introduction of seeds or microorganisms to fragile and remote islands and atolls in the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands.
(27) Much of this section was excerpted from the UNEP's document on the impacts of tourism on coral reefs and provides information relevant to the A & N islands.
(28) Apparently the permit approval process for this and other forms of construction does not include sufficient environmental impact assessment nor mandatory consultation with local authorities at departmental offices on individual islands (outside of Port Blair) - i.e. those with knowledge of local beach and forest conditions.
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