SANE Newsletter
November 2002

Not inferior to any: The Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Once known as "Kalapani" during the British Raj, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands have witnessed tremendous development after the Independence. Today the Andaman and Nicobar Islands can be compared to any other State or Union Territory in the country.

The islands numbering 572 in all has a total land area of 8249 sq. kms. of which only 36 are inhabited leaving a vast forest cover of 7170.69 sq. kms. The remaining i.e. 1078.31 sq. kms. (divided into 36 islands) comes under revenue land and accommodates a population of 3, 56,265.

What else?

We have a total of 23152 two wheelers, one for every 15.4 persons. The number of 4 wheelers is 8202 or one for every 43.4 persons. The islands have 473 buses, 1559 heavy vehicles excluding busses and another 465 three wheelers, tractors etc.

We have 138 Doctors not including private practitioners or one doctor for every 2582 persons. We have 310 staff nurses in public health system or one nurse for every 1149 persons.

There are 4472 teachers not including private institutions that comes to one teacher for every 80 students and the total number of Govt. schools is 376 giving us one school for every 948 persons. We also have two colleges, an ISO 2000 Polytechnic, two Teachers Training and one Industrial Training Institutes.

We love fun and frolic. We import 1, 40,000 cases of hard liquor (IMFL) and 40,000 cases of beer per annum. The rate of liquor consumption is 4.72 bottles of hard liquor (IMFL) and 1.35 bottles of beer per head per year if we include every man, women and child. We have thriving cottage industry of brewing illicit liquor for which no statistics are available.

We stop all traffic every time a dead body passes as a mark of respect. It is another matter that we also stop the traffic to let the red light bearing cars as is done in the mainland.

We import 6583 KL of Motor Spirit every year or 18.47 liters per person per year and 83293 KL of High Speed Diesel which amounts to 233.8 liter per person per year.

We have 38824 LPG connections in the islands, one connection for every 9.2 persons.

Last year, 182090 cylinders were imported from the mainland amounting to 0.511 cylinders per person per year. A LPG Bottling Plant is about to commence production.

Most islanders have never seen a railway engine or a train but have sailed in seagoing ships or even flown in aeroplanes. Even ten years ago, we had no beggars, pickpockets etc.

Floating Dock (FDN ) 1 Rests Under Sea

On November 06, 2002 the only floating dry dock in the country, the Floating Dock Navy (FDN 1) sank near Haddo Warf at Port Blair. While undocking a ship that had undergone repairs, the valves used for taking in ballast (seawater) appear to have failed. Within a few hours FDN sank and now sits on the sea bottom at a depth of 20-25 mtrs.

Efforts are on to salvage it. Experts from abroad were also flown in. But the actual salvage operation has not started yet.

Environmentalists across the country are apprehensive of the possible pollution. Being a dry dock with many pumps, motors, winches and other machinery, the chances of lubricating oil, grease and fuel oil contaminating the seawater cannot be ruled out. A more potent danger is the tetra ethyl tin, a highly toxic ingredient of antifouling paint that is commonly used for painting the hull. A quantity of chippings and dust generated during removal of old paint before repainting was probably stored on board awaiting disposal on shore.

The present C-in-C Vice Admiral Arun Prakash is known for his environmental concerns. He is known to pull up anyone who dumps garbage or causes an oil slick. One hopes that the Admiral has taken and would continue to take effective anti-pollution measures.

Encroachment in Tribal Area
First Time Ever: Tribal Youth files PIL before Calcutta High Court

In an unprecedented move, the Nicobar Youth Association, (NYA) a NGO registered under the Societies Registration Act moved a Public Interest Litigation (WP 710 of 2002) before the Calcutta High Court Circuit Bench at Port Blair, praying among others for the following:

a. Proper and effective implementation of the Aand N Aboriginal Tribes Regulation (see box) and Rules; stopping the issue of tribal passes and trade licenses to any non-tribal beyond the period permissible; applying the provisions of the rules to the Govt. servants also.

b. Cancellation of the Tribal Passes and Trade Licenses of non-tribals including Govt. servants who have completed the maximum permitted stay (of a maximum of two years) and deportation of the overstayers.

c. Directing the procurement agencies to collect the agricultural produce of the Islands of Nancowrie and Kamorta (directly) or to appoint a tribal society from these Islands as procurement agency.

d. Direct the respondents (Administration) to produce the records relating to issue of tribal passes and trade licenses.

e. Direct the Administration not to issue or renew any fresh tribal passes or trade licenses in respect of non-tribals who have completed the maximum period of two years stay, and

f. To appoint a Commissioner to study the issues and submit a report to the Hon'ble Court before the final disposal of the case, among others.

According to the Nicobar Youth Association, the cause of action arose because a large number of non-tribals had started infiltrating in the tribal reserves of Central Nicobar resulting in the tribals being put to hardship. The petitioners say that a five-acre plot of land granted by the Deputy Commissioner for construction of a temple and garden to the non-tribals in 1954 today is being used by various persons for commercial and residential purpose with the consent of the temple committee. The petitioners quote an order of the Sub-Divisional Magistrate, Nancowrie dated 12.9.97 which held that "due to illegal diversion of the temple land for commercial and residential purposes, the temple area has lost its sacred religions character." In this order, the SDM also said "Non-tribals are being allowed to remain in tribal area only for the period for which the tribal pass is granted and therefore it is questionable as to how and why the SSRK temple committee or any other authority can allot the land to the non-tribals and allow (them) to, construct hutments/buildings, some of which are of permanent character."

The petitioners say that inspite of this order of the SDM, Nancowrie of 1997, a large number of non-tribals were granted Tribal Passes and Trade Licences and even allowed to construct commercial and residential structures in the tribal reserve area.

The NYA claims that hundreds of non&endash;tribals have been living and operating their businesses for years together and had managed to get their trade licenses and tribal passes renewed on numerous occasions. NYA further alleges that these non-tribals are bringing "liquor and other unwanted things" in the tribal area and selling these "strictly prohibited" items to the innocent and simple tribals at exorbitant rates, mostly in exchange of the tribal produce such as copra and arecanut for which the tribals are paid a very low price.

The NYA alleges that although the Administration has a scheme of procurement of agro produce from the tribal area at the minimum support price, faulty implementation prevents the tribals of Central Nicobar from benefiting. The Administration's chosen procurement agency does not have any office/procurement centre in Nancowrie or Kamorta Islands. Since the poor tribals cannot hold their produce till the visit of the procurement agent, at an uncertain date they are forced to sell it to the middlemen at very cheap rates. The Administration is the sole provider of inter-island boat/ship transport and the Govt. Ships are do not accept agricultural cargo from the tribals. But the street-wise middlemen do not find any difficulty in bringing the cargo to Port Blair and sell it to the official procurement agency at the minimum support price (usually much above the market price) and earn a huge profit at the expenses of the simple tribals.

The NYA submitted to the Court that some non-tribal businessmen while already married and having a family at Port Blair or in the mainland marries a simple and innocent tribal girl to benefit from the status. They further submitted that contractors engaged by various Govt. agencies brought non-tribal labourers into the tribal area for execution of works awarded to them but do not take the labourers back as is required under the law after the work is over. The labour just add to the influx.

Even in 1990, Dr. Austin Justin of ASI in his book The Nicobarese reports, "some cases have been detected where outsiders have encroached on the Islanders' land." Obviously, the same tradition has continued at a greater pace.

The growing discontent of the Nicobar tribals that found expression in the instant PIL has a great potential of destabilisation. It is like a time bomb. If we fail to defuse it in time, the passive, peaceful, primitive Nicobar might turn out to be another North East in the making.

Raping The Beaches

The NYA, in their PIL, have stated that the Administration officials frequently issue permissions to the non-tribals to bring their boats for collection of various building material and sand from the Nancowrie group of Islands.

Collection of sand (for concrete constructions) have already destroyed many beaches and severely affected others in the Andaman group of Islands. Sand collection destroys the habitat of the beach dwelling animals and other organisms and thereby reduces biodiversity. It also sets off a chain reaction even on the land through the process of erosion and threatens island ecosystem. In a PIL (IA 502/WP202) filed by SANE, Kalpavriksh and BNHS, the Hon'ble Supreme Court has ordered phasing out of sand mining at the rate of 20% every year for five years to achieve a level of 33% of present volume of collection.

Mr. Simron Jit Singh, a researcher currently with theInstitute of Interdisciplinary Research of Austrian Universities at Vienna conducted a study in the Central Nicobars and reported that in the Island under study, 98% of all constructio9n material collected was used by the Govt. locally or in other Islands, while the local tribal community, only 2% of the material was used. Simron warns that if such exploitative resource gathering continued unabated, the Islanders will suffer severely through impoverishment of the natural ecosystem resulting in an acute shortage of certain vital resources.

Fences Eat Grass

The NYA, in Para 26 of their PIL state, encroachment by non-tribals has become a big issue in the tribal area. The main violators are Govt. Servants, Contractors, labour and businessmen, who usually encroach upon the back yard of the allotted Govt. residences and convert these to gardens by growing coconut and other fruit bearing trees. Of late, even land actually occupied by tribals are being illegally encroached into "taking advantage of the innocence and mild nature of the tribals."

Such encroachments are rather common in the A and N Islands. In Baratang Island, a large number of retired and serving Govt. servants have encroached into the backyards of their duly allotted Govt. quarters since more than the last two decades. In many instances the Govt. quarters allotted to them are not recognizable as such, due to addition and alterations carried out over a period of time. Even at and around Port Blair town, it in not uncommon to find Govt. servants or former Govt. servants in occupation of plots of land which are/were adjacent to their (former) official residences. In many cases, a permissive Administration has actually regularized such encroachments and given these legal status.

In a PIL (IA 503/WP202) filed by SANE and others, the Hon'ble Supreme Court had ordered a clean-up act for the forest encroachments. Let us wait and watch whether the authorities can or will act decisively before the Hon'ble HC decides the case of the NYA. The Local Born Association has also submitted an affidavit to the Central Empowered Committee (constituted by the Hon'ble Supreme Court) praying for removal of myriad encroachment on revenue land in Andamans.

In the meantime, parochial politicians are engaged in their favourite game of fishing in troubled waters while a permissive bureaucracy stands by and watches.

Who are these Nicobarese?

The Nicobar group consists of 22 Islands in the Bay of Bengal located between 6o to 10o N and 92o to 94o E of which 12 Islands are inhabited. The indigenous people of this group are two mangoloid tribes called the Nicobarese and the Shom-Pens. The Nicobarese are present in all the 12 inhabited Islands while the Shom-Pens are found only in a very small part of the Great Nicobar Island.

Although the Nicobarese are classed by the Anthropologists to be a single tribe, there are considerably variations in language, culture and traditions across the Islands. Dr. Justin (ASI) classes them according to their distribution in North, Central and Southern Nicobars. The only Island in the North Group is Car Nicobar, the inhabitants of which may be termed as the dominant group. While most Nicobarese understand the Car Nicobarese dialect, the Car Nicobarese rarely speak the other Nicobarese dialects. Because of overpopulation, some Nicobarese families were taken out of Car Nicobar and settled in the Little Andaman (the southernmost Island of the Andaman group.)

Commonly called "Holchu" by Andamanians locally, the Nicobarese are a jovial, helpful, athletic group of people, not yet spoilt by the rat race of "progress". "Hol Chu" means 'my friend' in Car Nicobarese and is a form of address used by the Nicobarese among themselves. Dr. Justin cautions that the Nicobarese do not like being addressed as Holchu by outsiders but the Andamanians are blissfully ignorant of this.

The Nicobar Islands harbour a great deal of biodiversity and are distinctly different from the Andaman Islands. Padauk, the king of Andaman forests do not occur in Nicobars or even in Little Andaman. Conversely, Tree Ferns do not occur in Andamans but are found in Nicobar. Megapodes, an endemic bird, also called the thermometer bird, occur only in the Nicobars while the Narcondum Hornbill occurs only in Narcondum Island in North Andaman. Many species of corals are widely distributed in the Nicobars.

The Nicobarese are great swimmers, sailors and fishers. They gather a lot of resources from the sea. Their knowledge of the properties of plants and animals is extensive and mind-boggling. While the coral reefs in Indonesia and Philippines have suffered extensive damage due to the use of Sodium Cyanide for catching fish, the Central Nicobarese traditionally use a wild fruit (Barringtonia) for fishing in coastal waters where the coral reefs remain healthy as ever.

Simron Jit Singh has prepared the following checklist of differences between the Car Nicobarese and Central Nicobarese, who now wish to be recognized as a separate tribe or sub-tribe. The PIL (WP710) was filed by the NYA which is based in Nancowrie.

Checklist of differences between Nancory and Car Nicobar

	Nancowry island	Car Nicobar
1	Social organisation and family structure in terms of Kamunchia; own pattern of leadership	Social organisation and family structure in terms of tuhet; a different pattern of leadership
2	Own Nancowry language without a script	Own language that is incomprehensible to the people of Nancowry; an existing script
3	A strong cultural expression in terms of ritual objects (Hentakuis and Kareaus)	Absence of ritual objects such as Hentakuis and Kareaus
4	Nancowry celebrates seasons (through Oliov) and ancestor feasts (Tonoiny and Kinruaka)	Car Nicobarese have a different way (also the timings differ) of celebrating festivals concerning seasons and ancestor worship
5	Own way of making Canoes	Car Nicobarese make their canoes differently from those of Nancowry
6	House construction patterns (especially Gol Ghar) are typical of Nancowry; still maintain to a large extent the traditional hut building.	House construction patterns (especially Gol Ghar) are similar to that of Chaura and currently has undergone tremendous transformation in terms of construction material and style.
7	Still rather traditional in outlook and lifestyle	Relatively more advanced and educated; no longer dependent on subsistence activities like hunting and gathering: job oriented

Colonisation of Tribal Land

Let it not be said by future generations that the Indian Republic has been built on the destruction of the green earth and the innocent tribals who have been living these for centuries.
(then) President K.R. Narayanan

Modern man's quest for "development" and "progress" has blinded him to the right and entitlements of the indigenous populations of the world..
Prof. G. Prakash Reddy

In their continual search for food the Onges have acquired botanical and zoological knowledge which seems almost innate, and they know of properties in plants and animals of which we are quite unaware.
Prof. Lidio Cipriani

(In Nicobar) the floating as well as employed (non-tribal) population has spread gross immorality among the people. In the wake of awareness of the importance of Currency, prostitution has become a real fear.....
The interference of outsiders in Nicobar has also affected the ecological balance; and thereby the Nicobarese techno-socio-economic life. There is no dense forest left on Car Nicobar; so the cutting of wood for fuel not only further reduces the forest but also makes living impossible.
Dr. Anstice Justin

The people have started challenging the legacy of the imperialist laws themselves. Most of the laws in our Country are not in consonance with the spirit of our Constitution …
The saddest part is that the provisions in the constitution for their (the tribals') protection remained a dead letter simply because the rulers did not care even to have a look at them, let alone imbibing their spirit and operationalising the same ...
The most basic and inalienable right of a community, (that) is the right to manage its own affairs according to its customs and traditions and its command over the habitat, which have sustained the community since time immemorial.
Dr. B.D. Sharma

Know The Isles

Chew and smear method:
"Honey has always been a favourite food of all tribals. The Onge of little Andamans have a great way of collecting honey from the forest. They chew the leaves of a special tree called the "tonjoghe" and smear the juice all over the body. This keeps the bees from stinging them. They also blow out the fumes of the juice to drive the bees away from the hive."
Treasure Island by Suneeta Rao

Hot Spot of Biodiversity
"These islands are an internationally acknowledged hot spot for biodiversity, with over 3,552 species of flowering plants (223 species endemic), 5,100 species of animals (100 freshwater, 2847 terrestrial, 503 endemic) and 4508 marine species (of which 220 are endemic), 52 species of mammals (33 species endemic), 244 species of birds (96 endemic), and 111 species of amphibians and reptiles (66 endemic) the islands also have reported 197 species of corals with about 80% of the maximum coral diversity found anywhere in the world."
Sustainable management of protected areas in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, by Harry V. Andrews and Vasumathi Sankaran

"Mass bleaching" of coral reefs in the A and N Islands in 1998

Bleaching of coral reefs is not something new. With the rise in the global temperature, bleaching has been noticed in most of the places in the world. Andaman and Nicobar Islands is not any exception.

Recently in a meeting organised by the Press Club of Andaman and Nicobar Islands wherein Mr. Prem Shankar Jha, renouned journalist of the country was the chief guest, bleaching of coral reefs was discussed. Mr. Jha had visited the islands way back in 1987. Comparing with his earlier visit, the journalist was tempted to state that most of the corals in Jolly Buoy and Cinque Islands in the A and N group had turned gray. Mr. Jha's observation is very much true but the bureaucrats had preferred to downplay the significance of the phenomenon for the reason best known to them.

Mass bleaching of corals was noticed among the coral reefs distributed along the coasts of A and N Islands in 1998. Not only coral species but also the associated fauna like sea anemone, giant clams etc., which harbour symbiotic micro algae in their tissues had been affected by this bleaching phenomenon. The bleaching effect was evidently due to expulsion or extrusion of the algae, which actually impart the colour to the host animals. As early as February 1998, NOAA (USA) had predicted that the Surface Seawater Temperature (SST) will be higher than normal during the year in the India ocean and adjacent seas. SST is one of the important critical factors which influences the symbiotic association of host animals like corals, giant clam etc., with micro algae they are harbouring in their tissues. As a follow up of the prediction of NOAA, the impact of changes in SST on coral reefs was monitored during that year. The bleaching of coral colonies started appearing in April 1998 among a few reefs of Andaman and by May 1998 the 'mass bleaching' phenomenon was widespread among the reefs of Andaman and Nicobar Groups of Islands.

During May-July 1998, several reef sits were visited in Andaman and Nicobar groups of Islands and surveyed using Line Intercept Transect method (LIT) widely adopted by INTACH and SANE Project teams since 1988 under the leadership of Dr. R. Soundararajan, Scientist of CARI, who has been trained in coral reef survey methods.

The mass bleaching phenomenon was more pronounced in shallow parts of reef (upto 5m depths). The data on mass bleaching of corals during May-July 1998 are presented in the Table.

Data on bleaching of coral reefs in A and N islands during May-July 1998

SI.No.	Date	Location	Coral Status (%)
			non-bleached coral	partially beached coral	fully bleached coral	dead coral with algae
I.	South Andaman
1	23.05.1998	Port Blair (Hospital) 11o 40' N - 92 o45' E	25.53	30.64	31.48	12.25
2	26.05.1998	New Wandoor 11 o 37' N - 92 o37' E	7.47	8.67	17.64	66.22
3	09.061998	Pt Blair (Mazar Pahar) 11o 39' N - 92 o 45' E	9.01	30.82	45.66	14.51
4	03.07.1998	Kodiaghat 11o 33' N - 9 2 o 44' E	9.39	5.04	26.87	58.70
5	08.07.1998	Port Blair 11o 40' N - 92 o 45' E	-	2.76	1.65	95.59
6	10.07.1998	Port Blair 11o 39' N - 92 o 45' E	12.75	10.82	3.69	72.74
7	15.07.1998	Redskin Island 11o 34' N - 92 o35' E	9.47	4.77	10.52	75.74
II.	Ritchie's Archipelago
1	23.07.1998	Havelock Island 12o 58' N - 92 o 54' E	40.66	4.77	10.52	75.74
III.	Middle Andaman
1	30.05.1998	Sound Island 12o 58' N - 92 o 58' E	49.59	-	18.93	31.48
2	30.05.1998	Avis Island (Site I) 12o 55' N - 92 o 55' E	16.28	26.65	51.64	5.43
3	30.05.1998	Avis Island (Site II) 12o 55' N - 92 o 55' E	19.80	14.81	611.23	4.16
IV.	North Andaman
1	18.06.1998	Smith Island 13 o 19' N - 93 o 03' E	14.42	-	70.45	15.13
2	18.06.1998	Brush Island 13 o 17' N - 93 o 03' E	15.96	5.45	63.10	15.49
V.	Great Nicobar
1	16.06.1998	Campbell Bay (Site I) 07 o 00' N - 93 o 01' E	37.70	58.93	3.37	-
2	16.06.1998	Campbell Bay (Site II) 07 o 00' N - 93 o 01' E	18.07	49.55	26.36	6.02
3	16.06.1998	Campbell Bay (Site III) 07 o 00' N - 93 o 01' E	30.17	23.81	30.27	15.75

It may be seen from the table that the bleaching phenomenon was not uniform among many reef sites surveyed. However, it is interesting to note that 'mass bleaching' was progressively increasing from south to northern group of islands.

The coral colonies which were not affected by 'mass bleaching' condition varied between 7 to 50%. The coral reefs in Richies' Archipelago and Sound Island (Middle Andaman) had been less affected. The reefs along Port Blair Coast (South Andaman) and some islands of North Andaman coast had been affected more pronouncingly. The partially bleached colonies accounted for 3 to 59% in many reefs and fully bleached colonies formed 2 to 63%. In many reefs the branching corals, especially of Acropora spp. were greatly affected and were dying. The massive corals seemed to withstand the stress, even though bleached for a prolonged period and these were recovering after July to original condition. The damage to branching corals was extensive in the reef flat zone of many reefs. The mass bleaching had considerably changed the composition of coral community, the massive corals becoming predominant by their survival capacity under stress conditions. There was widespread mortality of soft corals and giant clams (Tridacna crocea) occurring in the reef flat zone in many reef sites. The 'tell-tale' effect can still be seen in certain locations where algal encrusted dead coral colonies cover large areas of reefs. The small branching colonies are coming up and there is need to monitor the condition of coral reefs in the coming years for their recovery and regeneration and increase in the percentage cover of live corals in coral reef areas.

The status report (1999) published by CORDIO, Stockholm Univ., Sweden, on coral reef degradation in the Indian Ocean, pointed out that mass-bleaching event of 1998 had affected shallow reefs in the Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep and Andaman Islands. In the Gulf of Mannar, bleaching of 85% of corals was reported in May-June 1998, with subsequent mortality of 73%. In Andaman Islands, 65-80% of corals bleached in different coral reef areas and a mortality of more than 50% was observed. While there was a large scale death of branching colonies of Acropora spp. the massive colonies of Porites, Platygyra, Favites etc., survived through by September 1998.

The mass bleaching of corals reefs in 1998 had generated varied reactions from scientific and bureaucratic circles. While scientific studies highlighted the phenomenon to be reckoned with natural stresses like 'global warming', the bureaucrats had preferred to downplay the significance of the phenomenon for the reason best known to them by sponsoring studies to show 'all is well' with the coral reefs of Andamans, in spite of the overwhelming evidences regarding death of corals were coming to light from other areas of Indian seas.

The GCRMN report (2000) on the status of coral reefs of the world, however, chose to give more importance to the assessment made by Environment Ministry, Govt. of India, by surveying 5 coral reef sites, than that of the real status of coral bleaching event and consequent impacts on coral reefs of A and N Islands. According to the assessment of 'National coral reef leaders' the bleaching event had less impact on the coral reefs of A and N Islands.

The Table published in GCRMN report is reproduced below which will speak for itself.

Status of Coral Reefs of the World 2000

Country	Percentage destroyed prior to 1998	Percentage destroyed during 1998 bleaching	Potential recovery
Bangladesh	20 - 30	none	Low
Chagos	1 - 2	70 - 90	Good
India (Gulf of Mannar)	25 - 45	60 - 90	Medium low
India (Gulf of Kutch)	15 - 25	50 - 70	Medium low
India (Lakshadweep)	5 - 10	70 - 90	Good
India (Andaman and Nicobar islands)	2 - 5	15 - 25	Good
Maldives	2 - 5	70 - 90	Good medium
Sri Lanka	10 - 20	70 - 90	Medium low

These estimates were provided by National coral reef leaders in these regions and estimate the amount of reefs that were irreparably damaged prior to 1998 and those that suffered losses in the 1998 bleaching event, for which there should be good chances of recovery in South Asia.

It may be seen that in all other reefs the impact is severe but only the coral reefs of A and N Islands have remained least affected according to Environmental managers of Union Govt. who have evidently assessed the status sitting in the capital of India, thousands of miles away from A and N coral reefs.

In April to June 1998, the extensive damage caused to shallow water coral reefs in South Asia is ascribed to the stress caused by El Nino-related increase in sea surface temperatures which resulted in unprecedented coral bleaching. The adverse effects caused to most of the coral reefs in South Asia by the coral bleaching event in mid 1998 has been well documented but the event recorded among the coral reefs of A and N Islands has been deliberately downplayed of the significance by the 'Protectors', probably due to the shyness to get exposed for weak management or reluctance to raise up to the challenge posed by the consequences of an unfamiliar impact on coral reefs. The coral reefs are among very important coastal ecosystems supporting fisheries and tourism and management of coral reefs during stress conditions like those of mass bleaching cannot be ignored.

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